Construcción de una escala para evaluar tipos de elogios otorgados por cuidadores primarios a infantes de 0 a 3 años / Construction of a scale to assess the types of praise given by primary caregivers to infants 0-3 years

Resumen Los elogios son definidos como devoluciones positivas otorgadas a personas sobre sus atributos, sobre la realización de una tarea o sobre los objetos o productos realizados. Los distintos tipos de elogios que los cuidadores primarios o padres utilicen con los infantes cuando ellos realicen una actividad impactarán en su desarrollo, en las creencias o percepción de sí mismos o de los modos de aprender, y en la motivación hacia esas tareas que la niña o el niño realice. Estos modos de elogiar no han sido estudiados en la Argentina y no existen instrumentos estandarizados psicométricos para evaluarlos. Por esto, el objetivo de este estudio fue la creación y validación de una técnica de auto-reporte para evaluar los elogios que otorgan los cuidadores a infantes de 0 a 3 años. Los participantes que conformaron la muestra (. = 128) fueron reclutados por medio de internet y completaron un cuestionario de escala Likert de aproximadamente cinco minutos de duración. A partir del análisis factorial exploratorio, se ajustó la técnica y se agruparon las preguntas del cuestionario en tres dimensiones: elogios de persona, proceso y producto. Esto permitiría hacer una evaluación breve y sencilla de los elogios utilizados, lo que en un futuro aportaría a intervenciones o estudios que pretendan favorecer elogios que beneficien un desarrollo adaptativo de los infantes. Sin embargo, aún es necesario un futuro estudio que indague cambios en la técnica con un mayor tamaño muestral para la realización de una validación más exhaustiva.

Abstract Praise is defined as positive feedback given to people about their attributes, their performance, the objects or products made by them. The different types of praise that primary caregivers or parents use with infants when they carry out an activity will impact on their development, beliefs or perception of themselves or types of learning, and motivation toward the tasks that the children perform. One type of praise is the praise directed towards an individual, which compliments their own attributes such as her intelligence. Another one is the product praise, which is directed towards the final objects or actions that the infant performs, such as a drawing or physical activities. Finally, a praise directed at the process aims to congratulate the infant during the task as a process, either for making an effort or for the strategies that they use to achieve something. This last kind of praise favors perseverance in the face of new tasks to a greater extent, while praise directed at the person could generate more frustration when the infant experiences failure. Therefore, the way caregivers interact with infants is relevant, since it modulates motivation and the development of different skills. For this reason, the main objective of this study was the creation and validation of a self-report technique to assess the praise that Argentinean caregivers give to infants from 0 to 3 years of age. The sample was made up of 128 primary caregivers (. = 128) who were recruited through the internet. They completed a Likert scale questionnaire of approximately 5 minutes of duration. The data was collected during preventive social isolation due to COVID-19. This could lead to changes in parental behavior, while it also provides ecological value for understanding the ways to praise in this context, where caregivers spend a lot of time with infants; however, it would be important to conduct future research outside of this context. An exploratory factor analysis was performed, which led to an adjustment in the technique by eliminating four items in order to improve the psychometric characteristics of the instrument. By this analysis, the formation of the three dimensions was justified by the types of praise: person, process, and product praise.The final instrument consisted of 13 phrases that represent possible compliments used by caregivers. Participants indicated how often they usually use those compliments on a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). The items are divided by types of praise: six were assigned to the product dimension, three to the process dimension and four to the person dimension. The internal consistencies of the dimensions were process (α = .91), product (α = .74) and person (α = .73). This self-report technique for primary caregivers of infants would allow a short and simple evaluation of the praise used. In future research, this technique would allow an assessment of praise for the realization of studies that seek to expand the knowledge about how they affect child development. Likewise, it would contribute to the development of interventions with caregivers aimed to promote praise that benefits an adaptive development of infants. However, more studies are needed to investigate possible changes in the inventory, such as the inclusion of neutral praise or negative feedback. Furthermore, a larger sample size would be necessary to carry out a more exhaustive validation, performing a confirmatory factor analysis, convergent variance and factor invariance.

Efeitos dos jogos e brincadeiras na cognição e desempenho escolar de crianças / Effects of play on children's cognition and school performance

O presente estudo teve como objetivo examinar os impactos de um programa de 12 semanas envol-vendo jogos e brincadeiras na cognição e no desempenho escolar de crianças. Trata-se de um estudo quase-experimental, com grupos de crianças do quarto ano do ensino fundamental, com idades entre 8 e 11 anos. O "Grupo de Intervenção (n = 27)" participou das atividades de Jogos e Brincadeiras, en-quanto o "Grupo Controle (n =24)" não participou. Ambos os grupos foram submetidos a avaliações abrangendo dados de caracterização, atenção visual (TAVIS-4), flexibilidade cognitiva (Teste das Trilhas), bem como habilidades em aritmética, leitura e linguagem (Teste de Desempenho Escolar), antes e após a intervenção. O programa de intervenção estruturado a partir de jogos e brincadeiras ocorreu três vezes por semana, com duração de 50 minutos cada encontro, durante 12 semanas. Alguns exemplos de jogos e brincadeiras realizados ao longo da intervenção incluíram: "queimado xadrez", "pega-pega" e "dono da rua". Referente à análise estatística foi utilizada a ANOVA two-way para verificar a diferença entre os grupos antes e após o programa de intervenção. Os jogos e brin-cadeiras geraram efeito na diminuição dos erros por omissão no teste de atenção seletiva. Também apresentou diminuição do tempo despendido na tarefa "B" do Teste de Trilhas, além do aumento no escore Total do Teste de Desempenho Escolar. Podemos concluir que um programa de intervenção com jogos e brincadeiras gerou efeitos positivos na cognição e no desempenho escolar destas crianças

This article investigates the effects of a 12-week program involving play on the cognition and school perfor-mance of children. This was a quasi-experiment study, involving groups of fourth-grade elementary school children, aged between 8 and 11 years. The "Intervention Group (n = 27)" participated in Play activities, while the "Control Group (n = 24)" did not. Both groups were submitted to assessments encompassing demo-graphic data, visual attention (TAVIS-4), cognitive flexibility (Trails Test), as well as arithmetic, reading and language skills (School Performance Test), before and after the intervention. The structured interven-tion program based on play occurred three times a week, with each session lasting 50 minutes, over a span of 12 weeks. Some examples of games conducted during the intervention included "chess-dodgeball ", "tag" and "owner of the street". Concerning the statistical analysis, a two-way ANOVA was applied to examine differ-ences between the groups before and after the intervention program. The play activities resulted in a decrease in omission errors in the selective attention test. There was also a reduction in the time spent on Task "B" of the Trails Test, in addition to an increase in the total score of the School Performance Test. In conclusion, it can be stated that an intervention program involving play generated positive effects on the cognition and school performance of these children

Vulnerabilidad social y comunicación verbal y no-verbal en infancia temprana: revisión sistemática / Social vulnerability and verbal and non-verbal communication in early childhood. Systematic review / Vulnerabilidade social e comunicação verbal e não-verbal na primeira infância. Revisão sistemática

Resumen (analítico) El objetivo de la siguiente revisión sistemática fue indagar sobre la contribución diferencial del entorno socioeconómico en la capacidad de comunicación verbal y no verbal en los primeros tres años de vida. Se revisaron artículos de investigación empírica de los últimos 30 años en infantes con desarrollo típico. Se encontraron, en general, menores niveles respecto del desarrollo del habla y la comunicación expresiva y productiva en infantes de contextos vulnerables. Sin embargo, los resultados fueron inconsistentes respecto a la comunicación no verbal. Se concluye que se deben realizar más estudios con medidas directas comportamentales en comunicación no verbal para poder paliar las inconsistencias en los resultados actuales sobre la temática.

Abstract (analytical) The objective of this systematic literature review was to inquire about the differential contribution of socioeconomic environment to the capacity for verbal and non-verbal communication in the first three years of life. Empirical research articles from the last 30 years in normally developing infants were reviewed. In general, lower levels were identified among infants from vulnerable contexts in terms of speech development f and expressive and productive communication . However, the results were inconsistent in the area of non-verbal communication. It is concluded that more studies should be carried out with direct behavioral measures in relation to non-verbal communication in order to alleviate existing inconsistencies for the current results in this field.

Resumo (analítico) O objetivo da revisão sistemática a seguir foi indagar sobre a contribuição diferencial do meio socioeconômico na capacidade de comunicação verbal e não verbal nos primeiros três anos de vida. Artigos de pesquisa empírica dos últimos 30 anos em bebês com desenvolvimento típico foram revisados. Em geral, foram encontrados níveis mais baixos em relação ao desenvolvimento da fala e da comunicação expressiva e produtiva em bebês de contextos vulneráveis. No entanto, os resultados foram inconsistentes com relação à comunicação não verbal. Conclui-se que mais estudos devem ser realizados com medidas comportamentais diretas na comunicação não verbal, a fim de amenizar as inconsistências nos resultados atuais sobre o assunto.

Efeitos da crise e políticas de austeridade na insegurança alimentar e na mortalidade na infância no Brasil / Effects of crisis and austerity policies on food insecurity and in mortality childhood in Brazil

Esta tese visa identificar e analisar fatores associados à insegurança alimentar (IA) e à mortalidade na infância, apontando tendências e distribuições espaciais para estratos de menores níveis de agregação possíveis que em conjunto tenham abrangência em todo o território brasileiro. As análises investigaram a hipótese de piora do desfecho de IA grave, medido pela Escala Brasileira de Insegurança Alimentar (EBIA) e desfecho de morte antes de completar 5 anos, como efeitos da crise e/ou da política de austeridade. O trabalho envolve estudos com desenhos transversais para análises seccionais e ecológico misto de tendências espaçotemporais, a partir de dados de 4 inquéritos nacionais do IBGE, dos sistemas de informações em saúde do Ministério da Saúde para os desfechos e dados das estatísticas do registro civil do IBGE, de indicadores do Programa Bolsa Família (PBF), da Estratégia Saúde da Família (ESF) e de outros indicadores socioeconômicos de variadas fontes, todos como exposições representantes proxies da crise e da austeridade. Para os estudos seccionais adotou-se procedimento de calibração dos pesos segundo distribuição populacional por sexo e faixa etária, assim como a aplicação de métodos de estimação e modelagem que incorporam os efeitos do desenho amostral. A regressão de Poisson com estimação robusta de variância foi empregada para estimar em nível etiológico razões de prevalências de IA grave. Para o nível ecológico, empregou-se duas abordagens de modelagem multinível para 4 ou 14 medidas repetidas de estratos ao longo de dois artigos diferentes: regressão múltipla do tipo log-log para associações e modelagem de splines cúbicas para estimação de tendências. Os achados apontam impactos da austeridade em vigor, com inflexões de tendências no PBF e ESF, com reflexos sobre o aumento da IA grave e da incidência de mortalidade na infância. Projeta-se o aumento da IA e afastamento do alcance da meta 2.1 do objetivo nº 2 dos ODS em 2030 pelo Brasil, a despeito do sucesso já alcançado em 2014 para o primeiro dos ODM. Aponta-se também que, no prosseguindo na rota austera estabelecida pela emenda do teto dos gastos, o Brasil poderá continuar caminhando em sentido oposto ao estabelecido pela meta 3.2 dos ODS, podendo não ter êxito no seu alcance em 2030.

This thesis aims to identify and analyze factors associated with Food Insecurity (FI) and childhood mortality, pointing out trends and spatial distributions for strata with the lowest possible levels of aggregation that together cover the entire Brazilian territory. The analyzes investigated the hypothesis of worsening of the severe FI outcome, measured by the Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale (BFIS) and death outcome before completing 5 years, as effects of the crisis and/or austerity policy. The work involves studies with cross-sectional designs for sectional and mixed ecological analysis of spatio-temporal trends, based on data from 4 national surveys by the IBGE, from the health information systems of the Ministry of Health for outcomes, and data from statistics from the civil registry from the IBGE, from indicators from the Bolsa Família Program (BFP), from the Family Health Strategy (FHS) and from other socioeconomic indicators from various sources such as exposures that are proxies representatives of the crisis and austerity. For the sectional studies, a procedure was adopted to calibrate the weights according to population distribution by sex and age group, as well as the application of estimation and modeling methods that incorporate the effects of the sample design. Poisson regression with robust variance estimation was used to estimate at the etiological level the prevalence ratios of severe FI. For the ecological level, two multilevel modeling approaches were used for 4 or 14 repeated measures of strata over two different articles: log-log multiple regression for associations; and, modeling cubic splines for trend estimation. The findings point to the impacts of the austerity in force, with inflections of trends in the BFP and FHS, with reflections on the increase in severe FI and the incidence of mortality in infancy. It is projected that FI will increase and move away from the achievement of target 2.1 of goal 2 of the SDGs in 2030 by Brazil, despite the success already achieved in 2014 for the first of the MDGs. It is also pointed out that, by continuing on the austere route established by the spending ceiling amendment, Brazil may continue to move in the opposite direction to that established by target 3.2 of the SDGs, and may not be successful in reaching it in 2030.

Frustración, temperamento y vulnerabilidad social en bebés: estudio comparativo / Frustration, temperament and social vulnerability in babies: a comparative study

Resumen Antecedentes: la frustración se define como las respuestas del organismo que se desencadenan cuando existe una discrepancia negativa entre un incentivo esperado con el que realmente se recibe. Estas situaciones provocan respuestas conductuales, emocionales y neurofisiológicas análogas a las que ocurren con la presentación de estímulos aversivos o su anticipación. Existen investigaciones en bebés, pero pocos sobre sus asociaciones con diferencias individuales y ambientales y ninguno en población argentina. Objetivos: asociar la frustración, el temperamento y la vulnerabilidad social en una muestra de infantes. Metodología: se realizó un estudio asociativo-comparativo con una situación observacional estructurada donde se evaluaron a 22 bebés de 10 a 14 meses durante una tarea de frustración y su relación con el temperamento a través del Cuestionario de Conducta Infantil (IBQ-VSF) pertenecientes a dos extractos sociales evaluados con una ficha sociodemográfica. Resultados: se halló que a mayor extroversión, menor manipulación del objeto; y a mayor esfuerzo de control, menor fue la respuesta de morder, y viceversa. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en función del nivel socioeconómico. Conclusiones: se discutieron los resultados en función de la teoría de la frustración y las limitaciones del estudio, incluyendo recomendaciones para futuras investigaciones.

Abstract Background: Frustration is defined as the body's responses that are triggered when there is a negative discrepancy between an expected incentive and the one actually received. These situations elicit behavioral, emotional and neurophysiological responses analogous to those that occur with aversive stimuli or their anticipation. There is research on babies, but few on the associations with individual and environmental differences and none on the Argentine population. Objectives: To associate frustration, temperament and social vulnerability in a sample of infants. Method: A comparative associative study was carried out using a structured observation technique where frustration and its relationship with temperament were evaluated in 22 babies aged 10 to 14 months through the infant behavior questionnaire-revised very short form (IBQ-R VSF). The study population belonged to two social strata according to a sociodemographic record. Results: An inverse correlation was found between extroversion and manipulation of objects, and between effortful control and biting response. No significant differences were identified based on the socioeconomic level. Conclusions: The results were discussed taking into account the frustration theory, the study limitations and the recommendations for future research.

Mode of Delivery and Maternal Sensitivity: Effects on the Socioemotional Development of Children at One Year of Age / Tipo de parto y sensibilidad materna: Efectos en el desarrollo socioemocional de niños y niñas al año de edad

Abstract Early childhood is a period of high relevance in children's socioemotional development, establishing the basis for future development. Acquisitions during the first year of life are significant predictors of future social and emotional skills. During this period, maternal sensitivity is also essential, and there is evidence regarding its effects on the socioemotional development of the child. Considering the relevance of this competence, together with the global and national increase in cesarean rates and the possible risks associated with the type of delivery experienced, the influence of the type of delivery and the maternal sensitivity in child's socioemotional development at one year of age was analyzed. For this, an intentional non-probabilistic sample of 91 mothers with their respective children of different socioeconomic levels, who attended public or private nurseries in the city of Santiago, Chile, was studied. The instruments used were the Adult Sensitivity Scale (ESA) and the Functional Emotional Assessment Scale (FEAS). The results showed no differences in the children's socioemotional development according to the type of delivery. However, it was possible to observe an association between a higher maternal sensitivity and a more significant socioemotional development on children at one year of age. The implications of promoting maternal sensitivity are discussed to support optimal socioemotional development in infants.

Resumen La infancia temprana es un periodo de gran relevancia en el desarrollo socioemocional infantil; de hecho, es donde se sientan las bases del desarrollo futuro. En este sentido, las adquisiciones durante el primer año de vida son predictores importantes de las habilidades sociales y emocionales futuras, de modo que la sensibilidad materna, según evidencia respecto a sus efectos en el desarrollo socioemocional del niño, ha demostrado ser un aspecto fundamental durante este periodo. Teniendo esto en cuenta, y considerando la relevancia de dicha competencia, así como el alza mundial y nacional en las tasas de cesárea y los posibles riesgos asociados al tipo de parto vivenciado, el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la influencia de la sensibilidad materna y del tipo de parto en el desarrollo socioemocional infantil al año de edad. Para ello, se estudió una muestra no probabilística intencionada de 91 madres con sus respectivos hijos o hijas -de distinto nivel socioeconómico- que asistían a salas cuna públicas o privadas en la ciudad de Santiago, Chile, por medio de dos instrumentos: la escala de sensibilidad del adulto (ESA) y la functional emotional assessment scale (FEAS). En general, los resultados no mostraron diferencias en el desarrollo socioemocional de los niños según el tipo de parto, aunque sí se pudo apreciar una relación entre una mayor sensibilidad materna y un mayor desarrollo socioemocional de los niños al año de edad. Al final se discuten las implicaciones de promover la sensibilidad materna con el fin de apoyar un óptimo desarrollo socioemocional en los infantes.

Una mirada a la infancia en el marco de la violencia: del niño víctima a la responsabilidad subjetiva / A View of Infancy through the Lens of Violence: From the child as victim to subjective responsibility

La Modernidad dio nacimiento a una nueva forma de comprender la infancia en la que el niño es desprovisto de deberes y solo es considerado sujeto de derechos. Como corolario, en el caso colombiano la ley hace del menor de edad un sujeto inimputable y, en consecuencia, no se le considera responsable por ninguno de sus actos. Esto adquiere mayor relevancia cuando en un país como Colombia algunos menores de edad ejecutan una serie de crímenes tales como asesinatos, robos y secuestros, además de ser codiciados para participar activamente dentro del conflicto armado. En este escenario, ¿hasta que punto podemos hablar de responsabilidad subjetiva en los menores de edad? ¿cuáles pueden ser las consecuencias de que se haga de un menor de edad una excepción ante la ley?

Modernity gave birth to a new way of understanding childhood, one which relinquished the child from duties, but bestowed them with rights. As a corollary, in Colombia the law considers minors to be unimpeachable subjects, thus, they are not held responsible for any of their acts. This has significant relevance in a country like Colombia, where some youth carry out a variety of crimes like murder, robbery, and kidnappings, and are actively recruited to participate in armed conflict. Within this context, to what extent can we talk about youth subjective responsibility? What might be the consequences of making minor an exception before the law?

Melanotic neuroectodermal tumor of infancy: a case report / Tumor neuroectodérmico melanocítico de la infancia: reporte de caso

Abstract Melanotic Neuroectodermal Tumor of Infancy (MNTI) is a rare neoplasm originating from neural crest cells, which generally affects pediatric patients, most frequently during the first year of life. The behavior of MNTIs is benign, locally aggressive, with a recurrence of 10-15% and eventually malignant in 6.97%. This study describes the clinical, imaging, histopathological, immunohistochemical characteristics and the management of MNTI in a 5-month-old girl, whose lesion was resected and monitored. The present case illustrates the benefits of multidisciplinary integration for a correct diagnosis to ensure adequate therapeutic management, in addition to providing a report on this rare and understudied pathology.

Resumen El Tumor Neuroectodérmico Melanocítico de la Infancia (TNEMI) es una neoplasia infrecuente derivada de las células de la cresta neural, que afecta generalmente pacientes pediátricos y se presenta con mayor frecuencia durante el primer año de vida. Su comportamiento es benigno, localmente agresivo, con una recurrencia de 10% a 15% y eventualmente maligno en un 6.97%. En este estudio se describen las características clínicas, imagenológicas, histopatológicas, inmunohistoquímicas y el manejo del TNEMI en una niña de 5 meses de edad, a la cual se le realizó resección de la lesión y seguimiento. El presente caso ilustra el beneficio de la integralidad multidisciplinaria que permite establecer un diagnóstico correcto para asegurar un manejo terapéutico adecuado, además de aportar un reporte sobre esta patología poco frecuente y estudiada.

Patrones de apego en la infancia temprana en muestras normativas, contextos de cuidado alternativo, e infancia de alto riesgo / Patterns of attachment in early infancy in normative samples, alternative caregiving systems, and high risk infants

INTRODUCCIÓN: La evidencia de las últimas décadas ha demostrado que el apego temprano es un proceso vital para la comprensión, prevención e intervención de la salud mental y física de las personas. Sin embar go, es escasa la información sobre el comportamiento del sistema de apego en la realidad chilena. OBJETIVO: Describir la distribución de los estilos de apego en poblaciones de niños bajo diferentes tipos de cuidado. SUJETOS Y MÉTODO: A través de un método descriptivo retrospectivo, se evaluaron 714 díadas madre-bebé (de 1 a 36 meses) seleccionadas al azar y de modo intencionado, a través de los procedimientos de la Situación Extraña, Escala de Apego durante Stress (ADS), y la Escala de Relación Profesor-Alumno. Las muestras provinieron de familias normativas seleccionadas al azar, infantes de salas de cuna y jardines infantiles JUNJI, e infantes de los centros CONIN y en condiciones de privación de libertad junto a sus madres. RESULTADOS: Las 6 muestras provenien tes de 6 estudios demuestran el espectro del comportamiento de los estilos de apego en diversas condiciones: un 70% seguro y 30% inseguro, y un 51,1% seguro y 48.9% inseguro en muestras normativas; un 48,5% de seguridad y un 51,5% de inseguridad en cuidado alternativo y; un 39,6% de seguridad y 60,4% inseguridad, y 25% de estilos seguros y 75% inseguros en muestras de alto riesgo. CONCLUSIÓN: El estudio presenta interesantes evidencias sobre las distribuciones de apego en la infancia, que permiten reflexionar sobre la dispar realidad de la situación chilena en lo que a desarrollo socio-afectivo temprano.

INTRODUCTION: Scientific evidence gathered over the last decades has demonstrated that early attachment is a vital process for the understanding, prevention, and intervention of people's mental and physical health. However, information about the attachment system functioning in Chile is scarce. OBJECTIVE: To des cribe attachment styles distribution in populations of children under different types of care. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: Through a retrospective descriptive method, 714 mother-child pairs (1 to 36 months- old) selected at random and purposefully, were assessed using the Strange Situation Procedure, Atta chment during Stress Scale (ADS), and Student-Teacher Relationship Scale. The samples were collec ted from randomly selected normative families, infants attending JUNJI nurseries and kindergartens, and infants from CONIN centers and who live in prison with their mothers. RESULTS: The samples from six studies show the spectrum of the attachment system functioning in diverse conditions: 70% secure and 30% insecure, and 51.1% secure and 48.9% insecure in normative samples; 48.5% secure and 51.5% in secure in alternative care; 39.6% secure and 60.4% insecure, and 25% secure and 75% in secure styles in high-risk samples. CONCLUSION: the study presents interesting evidence on the atta chment distributions in childhood, which allow reflecting on the uneven Chilean reality with regard to early social and emotional development.

Role of maternal Anemia on cord hemoglobin and infant hemoglobin and ferritin level at nine months of age

Background: Primary objective was to compare hemoglobin at 9 months and secondary objective was to compare birth weight, cord hemoglobin and serum ferritin at 9 months between infants born to anaemic and non anaemic mothers.Methods: In this prospective cohort study, we compared cord hemoglobin, birth weight, hemoglobin at 09 months & serum ferritin at 09 months in infants of anaemic and non anaemic mothers. 'Subject of the study was all inborn term infants (n = 344).Results: Cord blood hemoglobin was similar between infants born to anaemic and non anaemic mothers. However, infants born to anaemic mothers weighed less at birth and had lower hemoglobin at 9 months of age.Conclusions: Infants born to anaemic mothers are at higher risk of developing anaemia in late infancy which may remain undetected at birth.

La fundación del Hospital Infantil de México, ahora Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez / The foundation of the Hospital Infantil de México, today Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez

Resumen En los primeros años del siglo XX, no existía en México un hospital que tuviera la capacidad de atender los problemas de salud de la niñez mexicana, lo que hacía necesaria la construcción de una institución moderna para atenderlos. En 1933, esta situación llevó a un grupo de médicos, encabezados por el Dr. Federico Gómez Santos, a solicitar y conseguir que el presidente de la República, Abelardo L. Rodríguez, reconociera la imperiosa necesidad de contar con un hospital de niños y aprobara el proyecto para su construcción. Luego de diez años de lucha en el campo político, social y económico, y con el apoyo de los presidentes Lázaro Cárdenas y Manuel Ávila Camacho, el 30 de abril de 1943 se inauguró el Hospital Infantil de México. Hoy, después de 75 años de su creación, el hospital ha resistido la prueba del tiempo y mantiene incólume sus principios de asistencia, enseñanza e investigación, emergiendo como la cuna de la pediatría mexicana y latinoamericana.

Abstract In the early years of the 20th century, no hospital in Mexico held the capacity to address the health problems of Mexican children, making it necessary to build a modern institution to take care of these issues. This situation mobilized a group of doctors led by Dr. Federico Gómez Santos to seek the acknowledgement of the President, Abelardo L. Rodríguez, of the urgent need of a children's hospital. Later, the President approved the project for its construction in 1933. After 10 years of struggle in the political, social and economic fields, and with the support of presidents Lázaro Cárdenas and Manuel Ávila Camacho, the Hospital Infantil de México was inaugurated on April 30th, 1943. Today, 75 years after its creation, the hospital has withstood the test of time maintaining intact its principles of assistance, teaching and research, and emerging as the cradle of Mexican and Latin American pediatrics.

Role of systemic steroids in acute hemorrhagic edema of infancy: report of two cases

Acute hemorrhagic edema of infancy (AHEI) is an unusual form of leukocytoclastic vasculitis with dramatic distinguishing skin lesions that occurs in infants who age 4 to 24 months old. Clinical presentation at onset requires clinical and, less often, histological evaluation to distinguish it from more serious diseases and other vasculitis. Treatment of AHEI remains controversial; and since it is a self-limiting disease, a conservative approach should be considered first. Although some authors have reported that the use of steroids may be beneficial if started early on, we think their use, based on our presented cases here, may accelerate the healing and improves the color of preexisting skin lesions but does not significantly alter the course of the disease. Authors reported here two clinical Cases of AHEI (Diagnosed based on characteristic skin lesions and confirmed with Histological evaluation) who were treated initially with systemic steroids, besides we reviewed the role of systemic steroids in the treatment of AHEI.

Resultados de un programa educativo para la formación de maestras de la primera infancia / Results of an educational programmes for the formation of teachers of the early childhood

Se presentan los resultados de un programa de formación dirigido a maestras de la primera infancia en la ciudad de Santa Marta, cuyo propósito fundamental fue propiciar cambios en sus prácticas educativas a favor del desarrollo de los niños. El programa se desarrolló en un período de seis meses, con la participación de 60 maestras de 8 instituciones educativas dirigidas por el Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar, beneficiando aproximadamente a 1370 niños entre 6 meses y 5 años de edad. Apoyados en un modelo de investigación-acción, se realizaron talleres formativos de revisión conceptual y metodológica para el trabajo con niños de estas edades, seguido de la planeación e implementación de actividades lúdicas en cada escuela. Todo esto con el acompañamiento permanente del equipo de investigación antes y durante la actividad, la cual era filmada. Como resultados del programa se registran cambios importantes en las prácticas educativas de las maestras, en relación con una menor frecuencia de escenarios educativos restrictivos y dirigidos, además de una reducción de acciones educativas grupales en las actividades. Esto implica un cambio en el nivel de intervención pedagógica de las maestras, lo que trae consigo un cambio en la participación de los niños.

The results presented are from a continuous training program directed towards early childhood teachers in Santa Marta, whose fundamental purpose was to cause changes in the educational practices of the teachers for the benefit of the children's development. The program was designed in a period of six months, with the participation of 60 teachers from 8 different educational institution directed by the Colombian Institute of Family Welfare (ICBF in Spanish), benefiting approximately 1,370 kids with ages between 6 months and 5 years. Supported in a model of action-investigation, we realized conceptual and methodological revision formative workshops for working with kids these ages, followed by the planning and implementation of ludical activities in each school. All this with the permanent escort of the investigators' team before and during the activity, which was filmed. As a result, important changes in the educational practices of the teachers, in relation with less frequent restrictive and directed education settings, along with a reduction in the group activities with the children. This implies a modification in the level of pedagogical intervention of the teachers, which brings along a change in the children's participation.

Low back pain and risk factors during the third infancy / Dor lombar e os fatores de risco associados durante a terceira infância / Dolor lombar y los factores de riesgo asociados durante la tercera infancia

Abstract Introduction: Low back pain is characterized as a pain in the area between the 12th rib and the low gluteal fold. This pain can affect different ages. During the growth peak, the postural control system is rearranged; therefore, the maintenance and fixation of these structures is crucial for the performance of daily activities. Thus, the prevalence of low back pain and their risk factors must be investigated, so that effective preventive measures against low back pain may be taken. Objective: To investigate the prevalence of low back pain and the risks associated to it during the third infancy, that is, children aged between 6 and 12 years old. Method: A transversal and observational study with 150 children of both genders, students from private institutions of Lavras, Minas Gerais, in 2016. Questionnaires were applied in order to understand the characteristics of the sample (age, gender, school year, ethnic group, parents' educational level, means of transportation to go to school and situations that caused or aggravated low back pain) and their low back pain (in the last 12 months). Results: The rate of occurrence of low back pain in the senior year of school was 20%. According to the chi-squared, "school year" and "ethnic group" (pardos) were the variables associated to low back pain. Sitting, mainly in front of the computer, was reported to be the main cause of the symptoms. Conclusion: Low back pain presented a prevalence of 20% with no significant difference between genders, but there was an association of low back pain and variables related to the school year and the ethnic group.

Resumo Introdução: A lombalgia é caracterizada como uma dor na região entre a 12a costela e a prega glútea inferior. Essa dor pode afetar diferentes idades. Durante o pico de crescimento ocorre uma readaptação do sistema de controle postural, com isso, é crucial a manutenção e fixação dessas estruturas para realização de atividades cotidianas. Dessa forma é necessária a investigação da prevalência de dor lombar e seus fatores de risco em crianças para que possam ser tomadas medidas preventivas efetivas no combate à lombalgia. Objetivo: Buscar a prevalência de dor lombar e fatores associados na terceira infância, ou seja, crianças com idade entre 6 e 12 anos. Método: Estudo transversal e observacional, composto por 150 crianças de ambos os gêneros, estudantes de instituições particulares de ensino na cidade de Lavras-MG no ano de 2016. Foram aplicados questionários para caracterização da dor lombar (últimos 12 meses) e da amostra (idade, gênero, ano escolar, grupo étnico, nível de ensino do responsável, transporte utilizado para ir à escola e situações desencadeantes ou agravantes da dor lombar). Resultados: A prevalência de lombalgia no último ano foi de 20%. De acordo com o teste qui-quadrado, o ano escolar e a etnia parda foram as variáveis associadas à dor lombar. A posição sentada em outra ocasião principalmente em frente ao computador foi apontada como principal atividade desencadeadora dos sintomas. Conclusão: A dor lombar apresentou prevalência de 20% sem diferença significativa entre os gêneros, mas houve associação entre lombalgia e as variáveis referentes ao ano escolar e à etnia parda.

Resumen Introducción: La lumbalgia es caracterizada como un dolor en la región entre la 12a costilla y el pliegue inferior de los glúteos. Este dolor puede afectar a diferentes edades. Durante el brote de crecimiento se produce uma readaptación del sistema de control postural, con ello, es crucial el mantenimiento y la fijación de dichas estructuras para la realización de actividades cotidianas. De esta manera, es necesaria la investigación de la prevalencia de dolor lumbar y susfactores de riesgo para que se puedan tomar lãs medidas preventivas más efectivas en el combate a la lumbalgia. Objetivo: Buscar la prevalencia de dolor lumbar y factores asociados en la tercera infancia, o sea, los niños con edad entre 6 y 12 años. Método: Estudio transversal y observacional, compuesto por 150 niños de ambos géneros, estudiantes de instituciones privadas de enseñanza en la ciudad de Lavras-MG en el año 2016. Fueron aplicados cuestionarios para la caracterización del dolor lumbar (últimos 12 meses) y de la muestra (edad, género, año escolar, grupo étnico, nivel de educación del responsable, tipo de transporte utilizado para ir a la escuela y situaciones desencadenantes o agravantes del dolor lumbar). Resultados: La prevalencia de la lumbalgia en el último año fue de 20%. De acuerdo con la prueba de ji-cuadrado, el año escolar y la etnia parda fueron las variables asociadas a dolor lumbar. La posición sentada en outra ocasión, principalmente frente a la computadora fue señalada como la principal actividad desencadenadora de los síntomas. Conclusión: El dolor lumbar presentó prevalência del 20%, sin diferencia significativa entre los géneros, pero huboa sociación entre la lumbalgia y las variables correspondientes al año escolar y a la etnia parda.

Estilos de cuidado materno em primatas: considerações a partir de uma espécie do Novo Mundo / Styles de soins maternels dans les primates: considerations d'une espèce du Nouveau Monde / Estilos de cuidado materno en primates: consideraciones a partir de una especie del Nuevo Mundo / Maternal care styles in primates: considering a New World species

Resumo Quando buscamos entender o comportamento humano, comparações com primatas não humanos são especialmente relevantes para identificar homoplasias (características semelhantes que evoluem independentemente em diferentes espécies). Neste artigo, apresentamos um estudo longitudinal de dois anos sobre o comportamento materno de macacos-prego (Sapajus spp.) em condições naturalísticas. Nossos resultados permitiram identificar estilos de cuidado distintos dentro de um contínuo de permissividade a proteção. O desenvolvimento observado do vínculo entre mães e filhotes sugere que o período de dependência de filhotes de macaco-prego envolve, além de processos de maturação física, o estabelecimento e desenvolvimento de processos psicológicos associados ao sistema de apego. É possível que a variabilidade de estilos maternos resultante da combinação de características de mães, filhotes e contextos socioecológicos, aliada ao prolongamento do vínculo de apego, pavimente caminhos para diferentes trajetórias de desenvolvimento. Como em humanos, esse pode ser um dos mecanismos pelos quais surgem e se consolidam as diferenças interindividuais nas populações adultas.

Résumé Lorsque nous cherchons à comprendre le comportement humain, les comparaisons avec les primates non humains sont particulièrement pertinentes pour identifier les homoplasies (caractéristiques similaires qui évoluent indépendamment dans différentes espèces). Dans cet article, nous présentons les résultats d'une étude longitudinale de deux ans sur le comportement maternel du Sapajou capucin (Sapajus spp.) dans des conditions naturelles. Nos résultats nous ont permis d'identifier différents styles de soins maternels dans un continuum de permissivité à la protection. Nous avons observé que le modèle de lien d'attachement entre la mère et la progéniture suggère que la période de dépendance des bébés singes implique, en plus des processus de maturation physique, l'établissement et le développement de processus psychologiques associés au système d'attachement. Il est possible que la variabilité des styles maternels résultant de la combinaison des caractéristiques de la mère, de la progéniture et du contexte socioécologique, ainsi que l'extension du lien d'attachement, ouvrent la voie à différentes trajectoires de développement. Comme les humains, il peut être un des mécanismes par lequel les différences interindividuelles apparaissent et se consolident au sein des populations adultes.

Resumen Cuando buscamos entender el comportamiento humano, comparaciones con primates no humanos son especialmente relevantes para identificar homoplasias (características similares que evolucionan independientemente en diferentes especies). En este artículo, presentamos los resultados de un estudio longitudinal de dos años sobre el comportamiento materno de monos capuchinos (Sapajus spp.) en condiciones naturales. Los resultados permitieron identificar estilos de cuidado materno distintos dentro de un continuo de permisividad a la protección. Se observó que el patrón de desarrollo del vínculo de apego entre madre y cría sugiere que el período de dependencia de la cría de monos capuchinos involucra, además de procesos de maduración física, el establecimiento y desarrollo de procesos psicológicos asociados al sistema de apego. Es posible que la variabilidad de estilos maternos resultante de la combinación de características de madres, crías y contextos socioecológicos, aliada a la prolongación del vínculo de apego, establezca caminos para diferentes trayectorias de desarrollo. Tal como en humanos, este puede ser uno de los mecanismos por los que surgen y se consolidan las diferencias interindividuales en las poblaciones adultas.

Abstract When aiming understand the human behavior, comparisons with nonhuman primates are especially relevant to identify homoplasies (similar characteristics that evolve independently in different species). In this paper, we present a two-year longitudinal study on the maternal behavior of capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) under naturalistic conditions. Our results revel distinct maternal care styles within a continuum ranging from permissiveness (laissez-faire) to protectiveness. The observed development of mothers and infants bond suggests that the dependence period of capuchin monkeys infants involves, in addition to physical maturation processes, the establishment and development of psychological processes associated with the attachment system. It is possible that the variability of maternal styles - resulting from the combination of mothers' and infants' characteristics, as well as socioecological contexts, along with the extension of the attachment bond - are responsible for paving the way for different developmental trajectories. This may be one of the mechanisms underlying interindividual differences arise in adult populations, as seen in humans.

Tracer Accumulation in Relation to Venous Thrombus on ¹⁸F-DOPA PET/CT in a Case of Persistent Hyperinsulinemic Hypoglycemia of Infancy / 대한핵의학회잡지

¹⁸F-DOPA PET/CT is commonly done in patients with persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy (PHHI) to look for any focal lesion in the pancreas.We present the findings in a 20-day-old neonate with PHHI who underwent ¹⁸F-DOPA PET/CT. The scan showed diffuse uptake in the pancreas with no focal lesion, physiologic excretion into the genito-urinary system, and interestingly tracer accumulation was seen in the inferior vena cava and ilio-femoral veins which is a non-physiological site for tracer accumulation. The uptake corresponded to a large venous thrombus which was confirmed by a venous Doppler.

La imitación y el entonamiento afectivo en el juego social temprano / Imitation and affect attunement in early social play

Con el objetivo de estudiar las pautas adultas de imitación y entonamiento afectivo que ocurren en las situaciones de juego social temprano entre adulto y bebé, se realizó un estudio longitudinal de caso único, con una díada adulto-bebé. La edad del bebé en la primera sesión, según la convención piagetiana [año; mes (día)], fue: 00; 3 (05) y en la última sesión: 00; 6 (28). Se filmaron 8 sesiones de interacción espontánea de la díada, en su hogar, cada 15 días. De cada sesión se seleccionaron los primeros 10 minutos de juego social temprano. Con este material se generó una video-secuencia de juego social temprano a la que se le aplicó un código observacional con categorías para las pautas de actividades de coincidencia maternas (imitación y entonamiento afectivo). Los datos obtenidos en este estudio indican que las actividades de coincidencia maternas de imitación y entonamiento afectivo aparecen en todo el período estudiado, con una frecuencia de dos eventos de coincidencia por minuto de juego social temprano. Se observó que las pautas de entonamiento afectivo materno casi duplican a las de imitación entre los 3 y 6 meses de vida del bebé. Asimismo, se registró que la mayoría de los entonamientos afectivos fueron transmodales y que la madre utilizó su voz como modalidad conductual privilegiada para establecer coincidencias comportamentales con su bebé, ya sea a través de la imitación o del entonamiento. Las imitaciones maternas más frecuentes ocurrieron como respuesta a las vocalizaciones del bebé y los entonamientos afectivos fueron provocados principalmente por los movimientos del bebé.

This paper focuses on two specific matching activities of maternal behavior in early social play: imitation and affect attunement. Imitationis a pattern of frequent interaction between adult and baby, providing a pleasant experience to both participants. In that context, imitation is not only bi-directional, but it is the adult who imitates more frequently. Affect attunement is an intuitive and fleeting interaction pattern, through which the adult attunes to the baby's affective state. It is a matching activity, where the amodal features of the infant's behavior (intensity, temporal organization, spatial pattern and / or quantity) are reflected through a different conduct. Previous research indicates that during the first 6 months of the baby's life, the adult very often uses imitation as well as affect attunement for interacting (which involves performing a different behavior than the baby's in which the adult matches the intensity, temporal pattern, spatial pattern, and / or the amount of the child's original behavior). Maternal affect attunement events have been observed from 2 months of age, and the frequency ratio between affect attunement and maternal imitation has been observed to change in ontogenetic development: between the baby's 2nd and 6th months the adult's imitative activity occurs at higher rates; while in the second half of the first year of life, the relationship is reversed. This paper presents the results of a longitudinal case study on a mother-infant dyad, about maternal imitation and affect attunement behaviors in early social play situations between the 3rd and 6th months of the baby's life. According to Piaget's convention [year; month (day)], the baby's age was 00; 3(05) in the first session, and 00; 6 (28) in the last session. Every 15 days, a total of 8 sessions of the dyad's spontaneous interaction, were filmed in their home. From each session, the first 10 minutes of early social play were selected. With this material a video-sequence of early social play was generated to which an observational code with categories for maternal matching activity patterns (imitation and affect attunement) was applied. The percentage of each category's occurrence in each evolutionary period was calculated. The data obtained in this study indicate that maternal matching activities of imitation and affect attunement appear from the beginning of the studied period. These results confirm those previously obtained in other studies that show the early emergence of adult imitation and affect attunement behavioral patterns. The data also indicate that matching activities of imitation and affect attunement appear throughout the studied period with a frequency of two events perminute of early social play. These results partially confirm those previously obtained in other studies. The new information obtained in our study concerns the frequency of both reciprocity patterns, and the type of behavior of the mother and baby involved in these matching activities. Patterns of maternal affect attunement almost double those of imitation between the baby's 3rd and 6th months. It was also reported that most affect attunements were transmodal and that the mother used her voice as a privileged way to establish a behavioral match with her baby, either through imitation or affect attunement. The most frequent maternal imitations occurred in response to the baby's vocalizations, and affect attunements were caused mainly by the baby's movements. Without detracting from the dyad's intense vocal activity already registered in the field's literature, the high frequency of affect attunements in response to infant movement highlights a trait less noticed in previous research: the adult's mastery in reading the baby's body and movement.

Hamartoma fibroso de la infancia umbilical: reporte de un caso / Umbilical fibrous hamartoma of infancy: a case report

Resumen: Introducción: el hamartoma fibroso de la infancia (HFI) es un tumor benigno de partes blandas que se presenta generalmente en población infantil y que posee una morfología histológica característica. Objetivo: describir un caso de HFI congénito de características clínicas e histológicas atípicas. Caso Clínico: recién nacido de término, sexo masculino, sin antecedentes mórbidos perinatales, es deriva do a dermatología por placa eritematosa congénita en región umbilical. Estudio histológico evidenció proliferación fusocelular en dermis e hipodermis, de morfología bifásica, con un patrón arremolina do infiltrante y otro de bandas de células fusadas con hábitos fibroblásticos y miofibroblásticos, aso ciada en profundidad a un componente de tejido adiposo maduro. El estudio inmunohistoquímico mostró positividad difusa a CD34 y focalmente para FXIIIa, con ausencia de inmunoreactividad a ac- tina, desmina, MyoD1, S100, HMB45, Melan A y EMA. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) para platelet-derived growth factor beta (PDGF beta) y para el gen ETV6 negativos, presentes en el dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans congénito y fibrosarcoma infantil, respectivamente. Estos antecedentes, sumado a los hallazgos histológicos previos, apoyaron el diagnóstico de HFI. Se realizó extirpación quirúrgica, sin signos de recidiva durante el seguimiento clínico. Conclusión: es importante consi derar el HFI dentro del diagnóstico diferencial de tumores subcutáneos infantiles, principalmente en población menor de 2 años. Si bien su comportamiento es benigno, presenta similitud con múltiples lesiones benignas y malignas, lo que hace imperativo realizar un estudio histológico exhaustivo ante lesiones clínicas sospechosas.

Abstract: Introduction: Fibrous hamartoma of infancy (FHI) is a benign, soft tissue tumor that usually oc curs in children and has a characteristic histological morphology. Objective: To describe a case of congenital FHI with atypical histological and clinical characteristics. Clinical case: Full-term male newborn, with no perinatal morbid history was referred to dermatology due to a congenital erythe matous plaque in the umbilical region. The histological study showed a fusocelullar proliferation in dermis and hypodermis of biphasic distribution, with an infiltrative, swirling pattern and bundles of spindle fibroblast-like and myofibroblast-like cells, associated in depth with a mature adipose tissue component. The immunohistochemical study revealed diffuse positivity for CD34, and focal posi tivity for FXIIIa, without immunoreactivity for actin, desmin, MyoD1, S100, HMB45, Melan-A, or EMA. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) was negative for platelet-derived growth factor recep tor beta (PDGFR-beta) and for ETV6 gene. PDGFR-beta and ETV6 gene are present in congenital dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans and infantile fibrosarcoma, respectively. This history, in addition to previous histological findings, supported the diagnosis of FHI. Surgical resection was performed, without signs of recurrence during clinical follow-up. Conclusion: It is important to consider the FHI within the differential diagnosis of subcutaneous tumors in children, especially in those under two years of age. Although its behavior is benign, it is similar to multiple benign and malignant le sions, which makes it imperative to perform a histological study in front of suspicious clinical lesions.

Melanotic neuroectodermal tumor of infancy: a clinicopathological case report

Abstract Melanotic neuroectodermal tumor of infancy (MNTI) is a rare neoplasm that affects mainly children under 1 year of age. A 4-month-old boy was referred for evaluation of a lesion with 1 month of evolution. Intra-oral examination detected a firm upon palpation submucosal nodular mass, measuring 1.5 cm in diameter, affecting the anterior maxillary alveolar ridge and covered by a slightly blue mucosa with evident telangiectasia. The patient underwent an incisional biopsy and histological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed nests of AE1/AE3 positive epithelioid cells with abundant melanin pigmentation. Other cell types, resembling neuroblasts, were also present and positive for CD56, synaptophysin and enolase. The diagnosis of MNTI was established and the patient was referred for treatment. Conservative surgical resection was performed along with 3 adjacent teeth under general anesthesia. The patient is in follow-up for 1,5 year without recurrence. Conservative surgical management of MNTI may be an alternative to maxillectomy, contributing to the patient´s quality of life.

Resumo Tumor neuroectodérmico melanótico da infância (TNMI) é um neoplasma raro que afeta principalmente crianças com idade abaixo de 1 ano. Um menino de 4 meses foi referenciado para avaliação de uma lesão com 1 mês de evolução. O exame intra-oral detectou uma massa nodular submucosa firme à palpação, medindo 1,5 cm de diâmetro, afetando rebordo alveolar anterior da maxila e recoberta por mucosa de coloração levemente azulada com telangiectasia evidente. O paciente foi submetido à biopsia incisional e as análises histológica e imunohistoquímica revelaram ninhos compostos por células com abundante pigmento de melanina, positivas para AE1/AE3. Outro tipo celular, semelhante à neuroblastos, também estava presente e foram positivas para CD56, sinaptofisina e enolase. O diagnóstico de TNMI foi estabelecido e o paciente encaminhado para tratamento. Ressecção cirúrgica conservadora sob anestesia geral ao longo de 3 dentes adjacentes foi realizada. O paciente está em acompanhamento há 1 ano e meio sem sinais de recorrência. O tratamento cirúrgico conservador do TNMI pode ser uma alternativa à maxilectomia, contribuindo para a qualidade de vida do paciente.

La imitación reconsiderada: Su función social en la infancia temprana / Imitation reconsidered: Its social function in early infancy

En el ámbito de la Psicología del Desarrollo, la imitación infantil ha sido un tema ampliamente estudiado, fundamentalmente, por su vinculación con la capacidad simbólica. Sin embargo, en los últimos 50 años su abordaje teórico y metodológico se ha diversificado profundamente. Se ha provocado un giro en cómo conceptualizar la imitación, desde un enfoque individual que destaca su valor en el desarrollo cognitivo y simbólico, hasta uno que entiende que la imitación infantil y los efectos de ser imitado están estrechamente vinculados con el desarrollo de las habilidades sociales y de la comunicación. El presente artículo recorre este giro partiendo de una breve presentación de la perspectiva de la imitación en la teoría piagetiana, la cual destaca el valor epigenético de esta capacidad en la formación simbólica del niño. Luego, se sintetizan los resultados obtenidos en los estudios sobre imitación neonatal, imitación en interacciones espontáneas adulto-bebé, interacciones entre pares y los efectos de ser imitado. En conjunto, estos datos permitieron reconceptualizar la capacidad de imitación, destacando su aspecto social y su función en el establecimiento de las primeras conexiones interpersonales entre el bebé y sus congéneres. Con vistas a construir una teoría integradora, se propone concebir a ambos enfoques como complementarios y entender a la imitación como una actividad que permite establecer coincidencias interpersonales, las cuales generan algún tipo de encuentro intersubjetivo que sirve para vehiculizar distintas funciones de acuerdo al contexto de interacción.

Infant imitation is a controversial topic that has been widely studied in the field of developmental psychology. In the last decades, since Piagetian theory of infant imitation, the research on it has been revolutionized. This article intends to review a set of studies on imitation in early infancy that have caused a change in the understanding of this phenomenon. In this review, Piaget's description of the development of imitation and its relationship to symbolic formation are set as a starting point. Piaget's theory has made an essential contribution to the study of imitation: it highlights its importance in development of symbolic function; it stimulated the realization of numerous longitudinal studies, promoted the development of techniques and observation systems for its evaluation in psychology labs, and led to the generation of different assessment scales of psycho-motor child development. However, experimental studies that demonstrated the ability of imitation in newborns have questioned Piagetian developmental theory of imitation and they revolutionized the understanding of the phenomenon. Data on neonatal imitation, which have received different theoretical interpretations, bring out that certain intra and intersensory coordination exist from the first month of life; that the capacity for imitation is selective; that its sequence of development is different from that proposed by Piaget and shows different evolutionary paths depending on the act in question. Beyond experimental studies, early imitation has also been studied in natural contexts. The data show that during the first two years of life, imitation is a frequent pattern of social interaction between adult and baby, providing a pleasant experience to both participants. In that context, imitation is not only bi-directional, but it is the adult who imitated more frequently. Such data suggest that the ability to imitate actions does not appear in development as a product of an exclusively individual process; but, on the contrary, is a capacity that gradually emerges in the context of social patterns of baby-adult reciprocity as a result of the communicative intentions of the latter. Also, imitation is an important relationship tool when the participants interacting are similar in age. There are several studies showing that young children use imitation as a basic way to interact and develop social and communication links between them, as well as to coordinate playful actions. Finally, experimental studies on the effects of being imitated indicate that adult imitation facilitates social interaction with the baby during the first two years of life. It causes greater visual attention from the baby, and more frequent smiles than a spontaneous interaction. Even it has been observed that babies are able to monitor adult imitation, testing it by modulating their behavior (for example, sudden stops or sudden changes in the direction of their behavior). Data from studies on neonatal imitation, spontaneous imitation in adult-baby interactions, peer interactions and the effects of being imitated have allowed reconceptualizing imitation, highlighting the social aspect and its role in the establishment of the first interpersonal connections between the baby and its congeners. All these new empirical evidence highlights the value of imitation in the establishment of social interactions in the early years of a child´s life, beyond their cognitive function of accommodation. In order to construct an integrative theory of imitation, it is proposed to conceive imitation as a matching activity through which emerges a social engagement that might serve to convey different functions according to the context of social interaction. It is suggested to carry out new longitudinal studies that investigate the contexts of interaction in which imitation events emerge, as well as the integration of the results of neurocognitive studies and Comparative Psychology.